Choline: Health benefits
Choline is an essential nutrient found in food products. It is also synthesized in the liver but to a small extent. Choline is necessary for the synthesis of phospholipids that are critical for the proper functions and structural integrity of cell membranes. Additional major benefits of choline include:
- Plays a role in the synthesis of methionine and acetylcholine (neurotransmitter)
- It is necessary for normal muscle function
- It is necessary for lipid and cholesterol transport from liver
- It is critical for brain development, especially the memory center of the brain
According to the Institute of Medicine (IOM) of the National Academy of Sciences, the adequate intake (AI) level for choline is 550 mg/day for men and 425 mg/day for women.
Choline Deficiency
Choline is essential to the vitality of cells. Deficiency of choline in humans is known to cause poor removal of excess of fat and cholesterol from liver, hence leading to development of fatty liver (hepatosteatosis). Choline deficiency is associated with liver damage. Choline deficiency in humans can also cause muscle damage. Other symptoms associated with ingestion of a diet deficient in choline are hepatic, renal, pancreatic, memory, and growth disorders.
Choline deficiency is considered to stimulate both cancer-initiating and cancer-promoting activities.
Choline deficiency causes an elevation of serum homocyteine which may be a risk factor for the development of atherosclerosis.
Choline side effects
Side effects associated with ingestion of high levels of choline include hypotension, sweating, diarrhea, and fishy body odor. The tolerable Upper Intake Level (UL) for adults is 3.5 g/day.
Food sources of choline
| Food items |
Choline content (mg/100 g food) |
|
Animal food products
|
| Egg, yolk, raw, fresh |
682.4 |
| Chicken, liver, all classes, cooked, pan-fried |
308.5 |
| Egg, whole, cooked, fried |
272.6 |
| Egg, whole, raw, fresh |
251 |
| Egg, whole, cooked, hard boiled |
225.2 |
| Turkey, liver, all classes, raw |
221.9 |
| Chicken, liver, all classes, raw |
194.5 |
| Turkey, heart, all classes, raw |
126.8 |
| Turkey, gizzard, all classes, raw |
89.7 |
| Chicken, broilers or fryers, meat only, raw |
65.6 |
| Chicken, broilers or fryers, meat and skin, raw |
59.7 |
|
Plant food products
|
| Mustard seed, yellow |
122.6 |
| pistachio nuts |
71.5 |
| Garlic powder |
67.5 |
| Cashews |
61 |
| Almonds |
52 |
| Ginger, ground |
41.2 |
| Brussels sprouts, cooked, boiled, drained, without salt |
40.7 |
| Pecans |
40.5 |
| Broccoli, cooked, boiled, drained, without salt |
40.1 |
| Broccoli, raw |
18.7 |
| Mushrooms, raw |
16.8 |
| Asparagus, raw |
16.1 |
| Clementines, raw |
14 |
| Radishes, raw |
6.4 |
| Blueberries, raw |
6.1 |
| Cucumber, peeled, raw |
5.6 |
References
Anderson GH , and Johnston JL. 1983. Nutrient control of brain neurotransmitter synthesis and function. Can J Physiol Pharmacol. 61(3):271-81.
Blusztajn, J.K. 1998. Choline, a vital amine. Science, 281(5378): 794-795.
Institute of Medicine, Food and Nutrition Board. 1998. Dietary Reference Intakes: Thiamin, Riboflavin, Niacin, Vitamin B-6, Vitamin B-12, Pantothenic Acid, Biotin, and Choline. Washington, DC: National Academy Press, pages 390-422.
Kerry, A.D.C., Gaffney, C. E., Fischer, L.M., and Zeisel, S.H. 2005. Choline deficiency in mice and humans is associated with increased plasma homocysteine concentration after a methionine load. American Society for Clinical Nutrition, 81(2): 440-444.
Zeisel, S. H. and Blusztajn, J. K. 1994. Choline and Human Nutrition. Annual Review of Nutrition, 14:269-296.
Zeisel, S. H. 2006. Choline: Critical Role During Fetal Development and Dietary Requirements in Adults. Annual Review of Nutrition, 26:229-250.
Data source: USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, (2004).
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